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Culinary Expert
Cooking is applied chemistry, biology, and physics governed by a finite set of principles. Every technique, substitution, and flavor combination follows rules that can be learned, applied, and adapted. This skill provides the foundational knowledge a chef or dietician uses to execute recipes, improvise meals, and make informed nutritional decisions.
Table of Contents
- Recipe Understanding & Execution
- Nutritional Science
- Flavor Science & Taste Profiles
- Ingredient Substitutions
- Food Storage & Expiration
- Recipe Generation from Available Ingredients
- Cooking Methods Reference
- Food Safety Fundamentals
- Dietary Pattern Encyclopedia
- Seasonal Ingredient Guide
- Kitchen Equipment & Tools
- Meal Planning & Prep
- See Also
1. Recipe Understanding & Execution
1.1 Mise en Place
The single most important practice in any kitchen. Mise en place ("put in place") means preparing and measuring all ingredients before applying heat. This prevents the scramble for minced garlic while onions burn, ensures nothing is forgotten, and transforms cooking from reactive to controlled.
The mise en place sequence:
- Read the entire recipe twice. Identify all ingredients, equipment, and techniques. Note ingredients that appear in multiple steps — they may need dividing.
- Gather all ingredients. Check quantities, expiration dates, and condition.
- Prepare ingredients in order of recipe appearance:
- Wash and dry produce (wet produce steams instead of sears).
- Peel, trim, and cut to specified dimensions.
- Measure and portion into small bowls or piles on a cutting board.
- Proteins: pat dry, bring to room temperature (20-30 min for steaks/chops, longer for roasts), season in advance when possible.
- Preheat equipment. Ovens, pans, grills — they need time. A cold pan absorbs heat instead of transferring it to food.
- Set up landing zones. Cooling racks, serving platters, trivets — know where hot items go before they come off heat.
1.2 Ingredient Order: Why Onions First
Ingredient addition order is not arbitrary — it follows the physics of heat transfer and the chemistry of flavor development.
The standard sequence for a saute/stir-fry base:
| Order | Ingredient | Temperature | Duration | Reason |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Oil/butter | Medium | Until shimmering | Oil must be hot before food enters; cold oil + cold pan = sticking |
| 2 | Alliums (onions, shallots) | Medium | 5-8 min, translucent to golden | High water content; need time to sweat out moisture and begin browning |
| 3 | Hard aromatics (garlic, ginger, chiles) | Medium-low | 30-60 sec | Burn easily; add after onions have released moisture and pan temperature has moderated |
| 4 | Spices (cumin, coriander, mustard seed) | Medium-low | 30-60 sec | Bloom in oil to release fat-soluble flavor compounds. Must not burn |
| 5 | Hardy vegetables (carrots, celery, peppers) | Medium-high | 3-5 min | Denser, lower water content; need more time to soften |
| 6 | Protein (if browning) | High | Per side | Require highest heat for Maillard reaction; if added too early with onions, they steam instead of sear |
| 7 | Liquid (stock, wine, tomatoes) | Variable | — | Deglazes fond, begins braising/stewing phase |
| 8 | Tender vegetables (peas, spinach, zucchini) | Medium | 1-3 min | Cook quickly; add near end to preserve texture and color |
| 9 | Fresh herbs, acid (lemon, vinegar) | Off heat | — | Volatile compounds destroyed by prolonged heat; acid brightens and balances |
Why this order matters:
- Water cooks out before browning begins: high-water vegetables release significant water. If added with protein, the released water drops pan temperature below the Maillard threshold (~300F/149C). The protein steams pale instead of searing brown.
- Fat-soluble compounds release in oil first: spices contain hundreds of volatile aromatic molecules. Many are fat-soluble, not water-soluble. Blooming in oil extracts these compounds into the cooking medium, where they coat every subsequent ingredient.
- Acid at end, not beginning: acid (vinegar, citrus, wine added too early) prevents vegetables from softening by interfering with pectin breakdown. Add after vegetables are tender.
1.3 Cooking Methods: Definitions and When to Use Each
Saute, Sweat, and Caramelize
These look similar — food in a pan with oil over heat — but differ in temperature, goal, and outcome.
| Method | Temperature | Oil amount | Movement | Goal | Visual cue |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sweat | Low-medium | Light coating | Occasional stir | Soften without color | Translucent, no browning |
| Saute | Medium-high | Light coating | Frequent toss/flip | Cook through with light browning | Golden edges, cooked center |
| Caramelize | Low-medium | Light coating | Infrequent stir | Deep brown from sugar browning | Mahogany brown, sweet, no burnt bits |
Sweating (French: suer) draws out moisture slowly. Used for: soup bases, risotto (onions in soffritto), delicate vegetables. Key: salt early — it draws moisture out of cell walls, accelerating the sweat.
Sauteing (French: sauter, to jump) uses higher heat and movement. The food should "jump" in the pan. Used for: quick-cooking proteins, vegetables for stir-fries, finishing pasta in sauce. Key: do not overcrowd — food needs space for steam to escape.
Caramelizing is the pyrolysis of sugar. True caramelized onions take 35-45 minutes, not 10. Low, slow, intermittent stirring. Adding a pinch of baking soda (1/8 tsp per 2 lbs) raises pH and accelerates the Maillard reaction, but also turns onions mushy.
Braise, Stew, and Roast
| Method | Liquid level | Temperature | Vessel | Best for | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Braise | Partial (1/3 to 1/2 up the food) | 300-325F (150-160C) | Dutch oven, tight lid | Large cuts: short ribs, lamb shanks, chicken thighs | Tender, sliceable, concentrated sauce |
| Stew | Submerged or nearly so | Simmer, 180-205F (82-96C) | Pot, lid ajar | Cubed meat, legumes, root vegetables | Tender, falling apart, uniform texture |
| Roast | None (dry heat) | 350-450F (175-230C) | Open pan, rack | Whole birds, large roasts, vegetables | Browned exterior, moist interior |
The braise sequence:
- Pat protein completely dry. Wet meat = steam, not sear.
- Season generously with salt. Ideally 1-24 hours in advance (dry brine).
- Sear in hot oil until deep brown on all sides. This is NOT "sealing in juices" (a myth) — it is building flavor through the Maillard reaction. The fond (brown bits on pan bottom) is pure flavor.
- Remove protein. Saute aromatics (onion, carrot, celery — mirepoix) in the same pan, scraping fond.
- Deglaze with wine, stock, or water. Scrape every brown bit.
- Return protein. Add braising liquid to 1/3-1/2 the height of the protein. Do not submerge.
- Tight lid. Oven (preferred over stovetop — more even, gentler heat). 2.5-4 hours.
- Check for doneness: a fork should meet no resistance.
Stew differs from braise: the protein is cut into uniform pieces before cooking. Every piece cooks at the same rate. The liquid-to-solid ratio is higher — pieces are submerged or nearly so.
Blanch, Boil, Simmer, and Poach
| Method | Temperature | Bubbles | Best for | Key technique |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blanch | 212F/100C (rolling boil) | Violent, continuous | Vegetables before freezing; softening for stir-fry; peeling tomatoes | Salt water heavily. Shock in ice water to stop cooking and set color |
| Boil | 212F/100C | Violent, rolling | Pasta, potatoes, grains, blanching | Salt water. Rolling boil for pasta; gentle boil for potatoes |
| Simmer | 185-205F/85-96C | Occasional, gentle | Stocks, soups, stews, braises | Never boil stock — it emulsifies fat and protein scum, producing cloudy, greasy result |
| Poach | 160-180F/71-82C | None to tiny | Eggs, delicate fish, chicken breast, fruit | Acid (vinegar, lemon) helps egg whites coagulate |
Boiling vegetables:
- Green vegetables: boil uncovered. Volatile organic acids that dull chlorophyll escape into the air.
- Root vegetables: start in cold water, bring to boil. Even cooking from edge to center.
- Salt the water. It seasons from the inside and helps preserve color.
1.4 Heat Management
Heat is not binary (on/off). It exists on a spectrum, and controlling it is the difference between a cook and a chef.
| Setting | Approx. temp | Visual indicator | Used for |
|---|---|---|---|
| Low | 200-275F (93-135C) | No sizzle on food contact | Sweating, slow caramelizing, keeping warm, melting butter without browning |
| Medium-low | 275-325F (135-163C) | Gentle sizzle | Cooking eggs, toasting spices, softening garlic without burning |
| Medium | 325-375F (163-190C) | Active sizzle | Most sauteing, pan-frying, building pan sauces |
| Medium-high | 375-425F (190-218C) | Loud, rapid sizzle | Searing, stir-frying, blackening |
| High | 425-500F+ (218-260C+) | Immediate violent sizzle, smoke | Boiling water rapidly, searing steak, wok cooking. Short bursts only |
Pan temperature tests:
- Water droplet test: a drop of water should dance and evaporate in 3-5 seconds (Leidenfrost effect) for searing.
- Oil shimmer: oil ripples and flows like water. A wooden spoon handle dipped in produces steady bubbles. Smoke rising from oil = too hot; remove from heat, cool, restart.
- Butter browning: butter melts, foams (water evaporating), then milk solids turn golden and smell nutty (beurre noisette). Remove from heat or add food immediately — milk solids go from golden to burnt in seconds.
Heat capacity and pan material:
- Thick, heavy pans (cast iron, clad stainless, carbon steel) hold more thermal energy. Adding cold food drops their temperature less. They sear better.
- Thin, light pans (unclad aluminum, nonstick) lose heat immediately when food enters. They are for eggs, crepes, delicate fish.
- Match the pan to the task: searing a steak in a thin nonstick pan guarantees a gray, steamed result.
1.5 Knife Skills Terminology
Precise cuts ensure even cooking. A 1-inch dice and a 1/4-inch dice cannot share a pan — the small pieces burn while the large pieces are raw.
| Cut | Dimensions (approx.) | Shape | Common use |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rough chop | Variable, 1-2 inch | Irregular | Mirepoix for stock, vegetables that will be pureed |
| Dice, large | 3/4 inch (2 cm) | Cubes | Stews, roasting, chunky soups |
| Dice, medium | 1/2 inch (1.25 cm) | Cubes | Salsas, salads, sautes |
| Dice, small | 1/4 inch (0.6 cm) | Cubes | Fine salsas, garnishes, uniform cooking |
| Brunoise | 1/8 inch (3 mm) | Tiny cubes | Fine garnishes, sauces, consomme garnish |
| Mince | As fine as possible | Irregular paste-like | Garlic, ginger, herbs. Rock knife tip, then go over with flat of blade |
| Julienne | 1/8 x 1/8 x 2 inch | Matchsticks | Stir-fries, garnishes, salads |
| Batonnet | 1/4 x 1/4 x 2-3 inch | Small batons | French fries (before double-fry), crudites, roasting |
| Chiffonade | Thin ribbons | Ribbons, shreds | Leafy herbs and greens. Stack leaves, roll tightly, slice perpendicular |
| Paysanne | 1/2 x 1/2 x 1/8 inch | Thin squares | Garnishes, quick-cooking soups |
| Supreme | Sectioned | Wedges | Citrus: cut off top/bottom, follow curve to remove peel and pith, cut between membranes |
Knife technique fundamentals:
- The claw: fingertips curled under, knuckles guiding the blade.
- The rocking motion: tip of knife stays on board; heel lifts and drops.
- Sharp knife = safe knife. A dull knife requires force, slips more easily, and crushes rather than cuts. Hone before each use; sharpen every few months.
1.6 Weight vs Volume Measurements
Weight is always more reliable than volume. A cup of flour can vary by 30% depending on how it is scooped (fluffed and spooned = 120g; scooped directly = 160g). A gram is always a gram.
Standard weight equivalents (1 cup):
| Ingredient | Metric weight | Imperial weight | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| All-purpose flour | 120-125g | 4.25-4.4 oz | Spooned and leveled, not scooped |
| Bread flour | 127-130g | 4.5-4.6 oz | Higher protein, slightly denser |
| Whole wheat flour | 120-130g | 4.25-4.6 oz | Variable by brand and grind |
| Granulated sugar | 200g | 7 oz | Consistent |
| Brown sugar | 200-220g | 7-7.75 oz | Packed tightly in cup |
| Powdered sugar | 120g | 4.25 oz | Sifted before measuring |
| Butter | 227g | 8 oz (2 sticks) | Standard US stick is 1/2 cup |
| Honey / maple syrup | 340g | 12 oz | Much heavier than water |
| Milk / water | 240g | 8.35 oz | ~1g per mL |
| Rice (uncooked) | 200g | 7 oz | Long-grain white |
| Rolled oats | 100g | 3.5 oz | |
| Cocoa powder | 85-100g | 3-3.5 oz | Dutch-process is denser |
| Chocolate chips | 170g | 6 oz | |
| Almond flour/meal | 100g | 3.5 oz | Much lighter than wheat flour |
Why professional kitchens use weight:
- Consistency: 200g of flour is always 200g of flour. 1 cup is never the same cup.
- Scalability: scaling from 4 to 400 servings is multiplication.
- Less cleanup: place bowl on scale, tare, add ingredient, tare, add next. One bowl.
1.7 Common Cooking Ratios
Ratios free you from recipes. Once you know that bread is 5 parts flour to 3 parts water (by weight), you can bake without a recipe.
| Dish | Ratio (by weight unless noted) | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Vinaigrette | 3 oil : 1 vinegar | Classic. Emulsify with mustard, honey, or shallot paste |
| Rice (white, long-grain) | 2 water : 1 rice (by volume) | Boil, lowest simmer, lid on, 18 min, rest 5 min off heat. Do not lift lid |
| Rice (brown) | 2.25 water : 1 rice (by volume) | Longer cooking (40-45 min) |
| Quinoa | 2 water : 1 quinoa (by volume) | Rinse first (saponin coating is bitter). Simmer 15 min, rest 5 min |
| Bread (lean dough) | 5 flour : 3 water (by weight) | Plus 2% salt, 1% yeast (baker's percentages: relative to flour = 100%) |
| Pasta dough | 100g flour : 1 large egg | Hydration varies by flour type and egg size |
| Pancakes | 2 flour : 2 liquid : 1 egg : 1/2 butter (by volume) | The classic 2:2:1:0.5 ratio |
| Crepes | 1 flour : 1 liquid : 1 egg : 1/2 butter (by volume) | Rest 30 min minimum |
| Pie dough (3-2-1) | 3 flour : 2 fat : 1 water (by weight) | Classic pate brisee. Plus salt (2% of flour weight) |
| Muffins | 2 flour : 2 liquid : 1 egg : 1 butter (by volume) | Muffin method: wet into dry, barely combine |
| Stock | 1 lb bones : 2-3 lb water | Cover by 1-2 inches. Plus mirepoix (2 onion : 1 carrot : 1 celery) |
| Brine (basic) | 1 tbsp salt : 1 cup water | ~5% solution. Sugar optional (1-2 tbsp per cup) |
| Roux | 1 fat : 1 flour (by weight) | White roux (2-3 min), blond (5-7 min, nutty), brown (15-25 min, less thickening power) |
| Slurry | 1 cornstarch : 2 cold water (by volume) | Whisk into simmering liquid; thickens at boil |
| Custard | 1 egg : 1/2 cup milk/cream | Sweet or savory |
| Pastry cream | 1 cup milk : 3 egg yolks : 1/4 cup sugar : 2 tbsp cornstarch | Plus butter at end for shine |
Baker's percentages: every ingredient expressed as a percentage of total flour weight (flour = 100%). 70% hydration = 700g water per 1000g flour. 60% hydration = stiff (bagels); 75% = slack (ciabatta); 100%+ = batter (focaccia).
1.8 Carryover Cooking and Resting
Carryover cooking: internal temperature continues rising after food leaves heat. The larger and denser the item, the greater the carryover.
| Protein | Carryover rise | Pull at | Target rest temp |
|---|---|---|---|
| Steak (1-1.5 inch) | 5-8F (3-4C) | 120-125F (49-52C) | 130-135F (54-57C) medium-rare |
| Roast (beef/pork, 3+ lbs) | 10-15F (6-8C) | 120F (49C) | 130-135F (54-57C) medium-rare |
| Whole chicken/turkey | 5-10F (3-6C) | 160F (71C) thigh, 155F (68C) breast | 165F (74C) final |
| Fish fillet | 2-3F (1-2C) | Just opaque at center | Minimal |
Resting meat: rest redistributes juices. Muscle fibers contract during cooking and expel liquid toward the center. Cutting immediately releases this liquid. Resting allows fibers to relax and reabsorb.
- Rest at least half the cooking time. A steak cooked 10 minutes rests 5. A roast cooked 2 hours rests 20-30.
- Rest loosely tented with foil — trapping steam softens the crust.
- Slice against the grain for tenderness. "Grain" = direction of muscle fiber bundles.
1.9 Deglazing
After searing, the pan bottom holds fond — caramelized, concentrated flavor compounds. Deglazing dissolves these into liquid, creating the foundation of a pan sauce.
Procedure:
- Remove seared food. Pour off excess fat, leaving ~1 tbsp.
- Optional: saute aromatics (shallot, garlic) in remaining fat (30-60 sec).
- Add cold liquid (wine, stock, juice, water) to hot pan — 1/4 to 1/2 cup per serving.
- Scrape pan bottom vigorously. Fond releases almost instantly.
- Reduce by half or more to concentrate flavor.
- Optional: mount with cold butter off heat (monter au beurre). Do not boil after adding butter — it will break.
- Season with salt, pepper, herbs, and a splash of acid right before serving.
Deglazing liquids and their effects:
| Liquid | Flavor profile | Best with |
|---|---|---|
| Red wine | Deep, tannic, fruity | Beef, lamb, duck, mushrooms |
| White wine | Bright, acidic, fruity | Chicken, fish, shellfish, pork, vegetables |
| Stock (matching protein) | Rich, savory depth | Any — the universal deglazer |
| Brandy / cognac | Sweet, caramel | Beef, pork, cream sauces |
| Sherry / marsala | Nutty, sweet | Chicken, veal, mushrooms |
| Vermouth | Herbaceous, slightly sweet | Fish, chicken, vegetables |
| Balsamic vinegar | Sweet-tart, syrupy | Beef, pork, roasted vegetables |
| Citrus juice | Bright, clean | Fish, shellfish, vegetables |
| Water | Neutral | When fond is especially dark and concentrated |
1.10 Recipe Format Parsing
Recipes vary in format but share common elements. When parsing a recipe, extract:
- Yield and serving size. How many does it feed? Main-course or side-dish?
- Ingredient list order. Typically in order of use, with sub-recipes separated.
- Prep indicators. ", divided" (use part now, part later); ", to taste"; ", for garnish"; ", optional".
- Implicit techniques. "Cook until done" means different things for different ingredients. "Brown the meat" means sear over high heat. "Reduce by half" means boil to concentrate.
- Timing and parallel work. Build a mental timeline: which steps can overlap?
- Doneness tests beyond time. "Bake 25-30 minutes" is approximate — the real test is golden brown and toothpick comes out clean. Time is a guideline; the sensory test is the truth.
2. Nutritional Science
2.1 Macronutrients
Protein (4 kcal per gram)
Protein is the body's structural and functional workhorse. Every cell contains protein. The body has no storage form — amino acids are either used or excreted.
Complete vs incomplete:
- Complete proteins contain all nine essential amino acids (histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine). Sources: meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy, soy (tofu, edamame, tempeh), quinoa, buckwheat, hemp seeds, chia seeds, spirulina.
- Incomplete proteins are low in one or more essential amino acids. Sources: most plant proteins — grains (low in lysine), legumes (low in methionine), nuts and seeds.
- Complementary proteins: rice + beans (grains provide methionine, legumes provide lysine), hummus + pita, peanut butter + whole wheat bread. Must be within 24 hours, not necessarily the same meal.
Protein quality scores:
| Score | Scale | What it measures |
|---|---|---|
| PDCAAS | 0.0-1.0 | Amino acid profile corrected for digestibility. Truncates at 1.0 |
| DIAAS | 0-100%+ | Same concept but uses ileal digestibility (more accurate). Whey = 109, soy isolate = 98, pea concentrate = 78, wheat = 40 |
Protein quality by source:
| Source | PDCAAS | DIAAS | Limiting amino acid |
|---|---|---|---|
| Whey protein | 1.0 | 109 | None |
| Whole egg | 1.0 | 113 | None |
| Milk | 1.0 | ~100 | None |
| Beef | 0.92 | ~109 | None |
| Soy protein isolate | 1.0 | 98 | Methionine + cysteine (slightly) |
| Chicken breast | 1.0 | ~106 | None |
| Pea protein concentrate | 0.89 | 78 | Methionine |
| Rice protein concentrate | 0.55 | ~35 | Lysine |
| Wheat gluten (seitan) | 0.25 | ~20 | Lysine (very low) |
| Chickpeas | 0.78 | ~83 | Methionine |
| Lentils | 0.67 | ~75 | Methionine |
| Quinoa | 0.91 | ~85 | None qualifies as limiting |
Bioavailability:
- Animal proteins: 90-99% digestible.
- Plant proteins: 70-90% digestible. Antinutrients (phytates, tannins, trypsin inhibitors) reduce accessibility. Cooking, fermenting, soaking, sprouting improve bioavailability.
- Cooking denatures proteins, generally increasing digestibility. Raw egg white is ~51% digestible; cooked is ~91%.
- Leucine threshold: ~2-3g per meal maximally stimulates muscle protein synthesis. 100g chicken breast = ~2.5g leucine. Plant proteins require larger servings or blending.
Protein requirements:
- Sedentary adult: 0.8g/kg/day (RDA — minimum, not optimal)
- Active adult: 1.2-1.6 g/kg/day
- Strength athlete: 1.6-2.2 g/kg/day
- Endurance athlete: 1.2-1.4 g/kg/day
- Elderly: 1.2-1.5 g/kg/day (anabolic resistance)
- Per-meal: 0.4 g/kg/meal (~30-40g) maximizes synthesis. >~50g in one meal is oxidized for energy.
Carbohydrates (4 kcal per gram)
The body's preferred energy substrate, particularly for the brain (~120g glucose/day) and high-intensity exercise.
Simple vs complex:
- Simple (sugars): monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) and disaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose). Absorbed rapidly; sharp blood glucose spike.
- Complex (starches and fiber): Amylose (linear, digests slowly, long-grain rice) vs amylopectin (branched, digests quickly, sticky rice). Slower digestion = gradual blood glucose rise.
Glycemic Index (GI) and Glycemic Load (GL):
- GI measures how quickly 50g of available carbohydrate raises blood glucose (glucose = 100). Low <=55, Medium 56-69, High >=70.
- GL accounts for serving size: GL = (GI x grams carb per serving) / 100. Low <=10, Medium 11-19, High >=20. GL is more practical — watermelon GI 72 but GL is 4 (mostly water).
- GI affected by: ripeness, processing (steel-cut oats GI 42 vs instant 66), cooking time (al dente pasta ~40 vs overcooked ~55), fat and acid content (both slow gastric emptying), fiber.
Fiber:
- Soluble: dissolves in water, forms gel, slows gastric emptying, binds bile acids (lowers cholesterol), feeds gut bacteria. Sources: oats, barley, legumes, apples, citrus, carrots, psyllium.
- Insoluble: does not dissolve; adds bulk to stool, prevents constipation. Sources: wheat bran, whole grains, nuts, cauliflower, potato skins.
- Adequate Intake: 25g/day women, 38g/day men. Most Americans get half.
- Fermentable fiber (inulin, FOS, resistant starch) metabolized by bacteria into short-chain fatty acids (butyrate, acetate, propionate), nourishing colon cells.
Resistant starch: escapes digestion in small intestine, ferments in colon. Sources: raw green banana, cooked-then-cooled potatoes/rice/pasta (retrogradation — crystalline structure; reheating does not destroy it), legumes. Cooling pasta/rice increases resistant starch 2-3x.
Fats (9 kcal per gram)
Most energy-dense macronutrient. Essential for cell membranes, hormone synthesis, and fat-soluble vitamin absorption.
Fatty acid categories:
| Type | Structure | At room temp | Sources | Health consensus |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Saturated | No double bonds | Solid | Red meat, butter, coconut oil, dairy fat | Limit to <10% of calories. Raises LDL |
| Monounsaturated (MUFA) | One double bond | Liquid, solidifies in fridge | Olive oil, avocado, almonds, canola | Heart-healthy; cornerstone of Mediterranean diet |
| Polyunsaturated (PUFA) | Multiple double bonds | Liquid even when cold | Vegetable oils, fatty fish, walnuts, flax, chia | Essential fatty acids (omega-3/6) |
| Trans (industrial) | Hydrogenated | Solid/semi-solid | Margarine, shortening, fried fast food | Avoid entirely. Raises LDL, lowers HDL |
| Trans (natural/CLA) | Ruminant-derived | Solid/semi-solid | Dairy fat, beef/lamb fat | CLA may be neutral or beneficial |
Omega-3 and Omega-6:
- Both essential. Compete for the same enzymes. The ratio matters.
- Omega-3 (ALA): flax, chia, walnuts, canola. Body converts ALA to EPA/DHA with ~5-15% efficiency.
- EPA/DHA (long-chain): fatty fish (salmon, mackerel, sardines), fish oil, algae oil.
- Omega-6 (LA): most vegetable oils, nuts, seeds. Ubiquitous in processed foods.
- The ratio: ancestral ~1:1 to 4:1. Modern Western: 15:1 to 25:1. High omega-6 relative to omega-3 is pro-inflammatory.
- Practical advice: fatty fish 2x/week; flax/chia/walnuts daily; reduce processed and fried foods.
Smoke points:
| Oil | Smoke point (F/C) | Best use |
|---|---|---|
| Avocado oil (refined) | 520F / 271C | Highest smoke point; searing, deep frying |
| Light/refined olive oil | 465F / 240C | High-heat cooking |
| Ghee (clarified butter) | 450-485F / 232-252C | Searing, frying, Indian cooking |
| Grapeseed oil | 420F / 216C | Searing, sauteing |
| Extra-virgin olive oil | 350-410F / 177-210C | Low-medium heat, finishing, dressings |
| Canola oil (refined) | 400-450F / 204-232C | Frying, everyday cooking |
| Coconut oil (refined) | 400-450F / 204-232C | Frying, baking |
| Coconut oil (virgin) | 350F / 177C | Low-medium heat |
| Butter | 300-350F / 149-177C | Low-medium heat, baking. Milk solids burn |
| Sesame oil (toasted) | 350F / 177C | Finishing only — do not cook with it |
| Flaxseed oil | 225F / 107C | Never heat. Dressings only |
Oil storage:
- PUFA-rich oils (flax, walnut, grapeseed) are most prone to oxidation. Refrigerate after opening.
- Light, heat, and oxygen accelerate rancidity. Store in dark bottles, away from stove.
- Rancid oil smells like crayons, old nuts, or paint. Smoke point drops as oil oxidizes.
2.2 Micronutrients
Fat-Soluble Vitamins (A, D, E, K)
Stored in fatty tissues and liver. Do not need daily consumption, but toxic accumulation possible with chronic mega-dosing.
| Vitamin | Functions | RDA (adult) | Rich sources | Deficiency/Toxicity |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A (retinol) | Vision, immune function, cell growth | 900 mcg RAE (men), 700 (women) | Liver (richest — 3 oz beef liver = 6,500+ mcg), sweet potato, carrots, spinach, kale | Deficiency: night blindness. Toxicity (from supplements/liver, not plants): liver damage, birth defects |
| D | Calcium absorption, bone mineralization, immune modulation | 600-800 IU (15-20 mcg) | Sunlight (UVB on skin), fatty fish, egg yolks, UV-exposed mushrooms | Deficiency: rickets, osteomalacia. Toxicity: hypercalcemia from supplements |
| E (tocopherols) | Antioxidant, immune function | 15 mg | Wheat germ, sunflower seeds, almonds, hazelnuts, spinach | Deficiency: rare (peripheral neuropathy). Toxicity: impaired blood clotting at very high doses |
| K (K1/K2) | Blood clotting, bone metabolism | 120 mcg (men), 90 (women) | K1: leafy greens. K2: natto (richest), aged cheeses, egg yolks | Deficiency: bleeding disorders. Toxicity: low (no UL for K1/K2) |
Water-Soluble Vitamins (B Complex, C)
Not stored significantly; excess excreted in urine. Need regular consumption. Heat-sensitive and water-soluble.
| Vitamin | Functions | RDA (adult) | Rich sources | Heat sensitivity |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| B1 (Thiamin) | Carbohydrate metabolism, nerve function | 1.2 mg (men), 1.1 (women) | Pork, sunflower seeds, legumes, whole grains | Heat-labile, especially in alkaline conditions |
| B2 (Riboflavin) | Energy production, antioxidant | 1.3 mg (men), 1.1 (women) | Liver, dairy, eggs, almonds | Sensitive to light. Heat-stable |
| B3 (Niacin) | Energy metabolism, DNA repair | 16 mg (men), 14 (women) | Chicken, tuna, liver, peanuts | Heat-stable. Leaches into cooking water |
| B6 (Pyridoxine) | Amino acid metabolism, neurotransmitter synthesis | 1.3 mg | Chickpeas, tuna, salmon, chicken, potatoes | Heat-sensitive. 25-50% loss in cooking |
| B9 (Folate) | DNA synthesis, neural tube development | 400 mcg DFE (600 mcg pregnancy) | Liver, legumes, leafy greens, asparagus | Extremely heat-sensitive. 50-90% lost in boiling |
| B12 (Cobalamin) | DNA synthesis, red blood cell formation | 2.4 mcg | Animal products ONLY: liver, clams, beef, dairy, eggs | Heat-stable. Some loss in cooking (~30%) |
| C (Ascorbic acid) | Collagen synthesis, antioxidant, iron absorption | 90 mg (men), 75 (women) | Bell peppers, citrus, kiwi, strawberries, broccoli | Very heat-sensitive. Destroyed by heat, light, air, copper/iron cookware |
Absorption enhancers and inhibitors:
| Nutrient | Enhancers | Inhibitors |
|---|---|---|
| Iron (non-heme) | Vitamin C (transformative — 25mg can increase absorption 2-3x), meat/fish factor, organic acids, cast iron cookware | Phytates (whole grains, legumes), tannins (tea, coffee), calcium, oxalates (spinach) |
| Calcium | Vitamin D, lactose (in infants) | Oxalates, phytates, high sodium (urinary calcium loss) |
| Zinc | Animal protein, organic acids | Phytates (primary — soaking/sprouting/fermenting reduces), calcium, high-dose iron |
| Magnesium | Vitamin D, protein | Phytates (moderate), high-dose zinc, high alcohol intake |
2.3 Energy Metabolism
TDEE components:
| Component | % of TDEE | Definition | Variability |
|---|---|---|---|
| BMR | 60-70% | Energy to maintain life at rest | Lean body mass, age (declines ~1-2%/decade after 20), genetics |
| TEF | 8-10% | Energy to digest/absorb/metabolize food | Protein: 20-30% of its calories. Carbs: 5-10%. Fat: 0-3% |
| TEA | 15-30% | Structured exercise | Most variable. Near-zero to 30%+ in elite athletes |
| NEAT | 5-15% | All non-exercise movement | Up to 2,000 kcal/day difference between individuals |
Calorie density by food group (per 100g):
| Food group | Calories per 100g | Satiety index |
|---|---|---|
| Non-starchy vegetables | 15-40 kcal | Very high |
| Fruits | 30-90 kcal | High |
| Starchy vegetables / grains / legumes | 70-130 kcal | Moderate-high |
| Lean meat / fish | 100-180 kcal | High |
| Fatty meat / fish | 200-350 kcal | High |
| Cheese | 300-450 kcal | Moderate |
| Nuts / seeds | 550-700 kcal | Moderate-high |
| Oils / butter | 880-920 kcal | Very low |
| Sugar / honey | 300-400 kcal | Very low |
| Ultra-processed snacks | 450-550 kcal | Very low (engineered) |
ANDI scores (Aggregate Nutrient Density Index):
- 1000: Kale, collard greens, mustard greens, watercress, Swiss chard
- 500-800: Spinach, arugula, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, bell peppers, carrots
- 200-400: Cauliflower, asparagus, tomatoes, berries, artichokes
- 100-200: Beans, lentils, sweet potato, beets, oranges
- 50-100: Avocado, oats, tofu, salmon, walnuts
- <25: White rice, white bread, beef, cheese, butter, sugar
2.4 Common Dietary Patterns
| Diet | Core principle | Allowed | Restricted | Nutrients to monitor |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mediterranean | Plant-forward, olive oil primary fat | Vegetables, fruits, whole grains, legumes, nuts, olive oil, fish, moderate dairy/poultry, wine | Red meat (limited), processed foods, added sugars | None — generally well-balanced |
| DASH | Low sodium, high K/Mg/Ca | Fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean protein, low-fat dairy, nuts | Sodium (<2300 mg), saturated fat, added sugars, red meat | None — designed to be nutritionally complete |
| Keto | Very low carb, high fat, moderate protein | Meat, fish, eggs, high-fat dairy, oils, non-starchy vegetables, avocado | Carbs (20-50g net/day), grains, sugar, most fruits, legumes | Fiber, potassium, magnesium, vitamin C, B vitamins |
| Paleo | Pre-agricultural human diet | Meat, fish, eggs, vegetables, fruits, nuts, seeds, olive/coconut/avocado oil | Grains, legumes, dairy, refined sugar, industrial seed oils | Calcium (no dairy), vitamin D |
| Vegan | No animal products | Veg, fruits, grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, plant alternatives | All animal products | B12 (mandatory supplement), iron, zinc, calcium, omega-3 (DHA/EPA), iodine, vitamin D |
| Vegetarian (lacto-ovo) | Plant-based + dairy + eggs | Vegan foods + dairy + eggs | Meat, poultry, fish | Iron, B12, omega-3 |
| Pescatarian | Vegetarian + fish | Vegetarian foods + fish + shellfish | Meat, poultry | Mercury in large predatory fish |
| Flexitarian | Mostly plant-based, occasional meat | Plants as base; meat as accent | No strict restrictions | None |
| Carnivore | Only animal products | Meat, fish, eggs, some dairy | All plant foods | Fiber (zero), vitamin C, E, K, Mg, K, Ca. Very limited long-term data |
2.5 RDA/DRIs by Life Stage
| Life stage | Elevated need for | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| Pregnancy | Folate (600 mcg DFE), iron (27 mg), calcium (1000 mg), DHA (200-300 mg) | Neural tube, blood volume, fetal skeleton, fetal brain |
| Lactation | Calories (+500 kcal), protein (+25g), water (3.8L), iodine (290 mcg), choline (550 mg) | Milk production, infant thyroid, infant brain |
| Infants 0-6 mo | Vitamin D (400 IU), iron (~4 mo for breastfed), B12 (if mother vegan) | Rapid growth, depleted fetal iron stores |
| Children 1-3 | Iron (7 mg), calcium (700 mg), vitamin D (600 IU), DHA | Brain development, bone mineralization |
| Adolescents | Calcium (1300 mg — peak bone mass), iron (11 mg boys, 15 mg girls) | Peak bone mass, menstruation |
| Adults 50+ | B12 (absorption declines), vitamin D (skin synthesis declines), calcium (1200 mg women) | Atrophic gastritis impairs B12 release; skin D synthesis declines |
| Adults 70+ | Protein (1.2-1.5 g/kg), vitamin D (800 IU min), calcium, fiber | Sarcopenia (anabolic resistance) |
3. Flavor Science & Taste Profiles
3.1 The Five Basic Tastes
Taste is the chemical sense on the tongue. Smell (olfaction) provides the vast majority of "flavor" — thousands of identifiable aromas vs five basic tastes.
Sweet
| Sweetener | Relative sweetness (sucrose=1.0) | Calories/g | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sucrose (table sugar) | 1.0 | 4 | Reference standard |
| Glucose | 0.7-0.8 | 4 | Less sweet, same calories |
| Fructose | 1.2-1.8 | 4 | Sweeter when cold |
| Lactose | 0.2-0.4 | 4 | Very low sweetness |
| Honey | 1.0-1.3 | 3.3 | Fructose+glucose. Slightly acidic (pH 3.9) |
| Maple syrup | 0.8-1.0 | 2.6 | Distinct flavor from sap concentration |
| Agave nectar | 1.4-1.6 | 3.1 | Very high fructose (~70-90%) |
| Stevia | 200-400 | 0 | Plant-derived. Licorice aftertaste |
| Monk fruit | 150-300 | 0 | Cleaner aftertaste than stevia |
| Allulose | 0.7 | 0.2-0.4 | Rare sugar. Browns, caramelizes. GI distress >0.4g/kg |
| Erythritol | 0.6-0.7 | 0.2 | Sugar alcohol. Cooling mouthfeel |
| Xylitol | 1.0 | 2.4 | TOXIC to dogs. Dental benefits |
| Sucralose (Splenda) | 600 | ~0 | Heat-stable. Bulking agents in granulated form add calories |
| Aspartame | 200 | ~0 | NOT heat-stable. PKU must avoid |
Sour
| Acid | pH (approx.) | Acid content | Culinary character |
|---|---|---|---|
| Lemon juice | 2.0-2.6 | 5-6% citric acid | Bright, clean, most versatile |
| Lime juice | 2.0-2.4 | 5-7% citric acid | Sharper, more aromatic |
| White vinegar (distilled) | 2.4-2.6 | 5% acetic acid | Sharp, one-note |
| White wine vinegar | 2.6-3.0 | 5-7% acetic acid | Milder, slight fruitiness |
| Apple cider vinegar | 3.0-3.5 | 5-6% acetic acid | Fruity, slightly sweet |
| Red wine vinegar | 2.6-3.0 | 5-7% acetic acid | Robust, tannic |
| Rice vinegar (unseasoned) | 2.8-3.5 | 4-4.5% acetic acid | Mildest. Slightly sweet |
| Balsamic vinegar | 3.0-3.5 | 6%+ (commercial) | Sweet, complex, syrupy |
| Sherry vinegar | 2.8-3.5 | 7-8% acetic acid | Nutty, complex |
| Tamarind | 2.5-3.5 | ~10-15% tartaric acid | Sour + sweet + fruity |
Acid balancing principles:
- Acid balances fat (vinaigrette, lemon on fried food).
- Acid balances sweetness (splash in too-sweet sauce).
- Acid prevents oxidation (lemon on cut apples/avocado).
- Acid "cooks" without heat (ceviche — citric acid denatures fish proteins).
- Acid added early prevents vegetables from softening — wait until tender.
Salty
Salt is the single most important seasoning. Most home cooking is undersalted.
| Salt | Best use | Characteristics |
|---|---|---|
| Kosher salt | Everyday cooking | Diamond Crystal is half the density of Morton's. Pinch-grip easy |
| Table salt (iodized) | Baking, tableside | Anti-caking agents can cloud pickles |
| Sea salt (fine) | Everyday cooking | Trace minerals add subtle complexity |
| Fleur de sel | Finishing only | Delicate, flaky. $20+/oz |
| Maldon sea salt | Finishing | Hollow pyramid flakes, crunchy |
| Himalayan pink salt | Finishing, presentation | Iron oxide = pink. "84 minerals" is marketing |
| Smoked salt | Finishing | Smoke flavor without smoker |
| Black salt (kala namak) | South Asian, vegan "egg" | Sulfurous — smells like eggs |
Salting principles:
- Salt early: dry brining 1-24 hours seasons entire cut.
- Salt in layers: water, aromatics, protein, final dish.
- Pasta water should taste like the sea.
- Undersalting is the most common cooking error.
MSG and umami synergy:
- MSG is the sodium salt of glutamic acid. FDA/WHO/EFSA GRAS. "Chinese Restaurant Syndrome" debunked by double-blind trials.
- 1/2 tsp MSG amplifies existing savory notes.
- Synergy: glutamate + inosinate (meat/fish) or guanylate (dried mushrooms) has multiplicative effect — 1+1 = 8 in umami perception.
Umami-rich ingredients (free glutamate mg/100g):
| Ingredient | Free glutamate (mg/100g) |
|---|---|
| Parmigiano-Reggiano | 1200-1700 |
| Kombu (dried kelp) | 1600-3200 |
| Ripe tomatoes | 200-300 (much higher in paste) |
| Soy sauce | 800-1200 |
| Fish sauce | 900-1400 |
| Miso paste | 500-800 |
| Anchovies (cured) | 600-1100 |
Bitter
Most sensitive taste (detectable at micromolar), most innately aversive — evolved to detect toxins. Culinary bitterness is acquired.
Bitterness sources:
- Coffee: chlorogenic acid lactones (roasting), caffeine (~10% of bitterness). Darker roasts = more bitter.
- Dark chocolate: theobromine and polyphenols. Higher cacao % = more bitter.
- Brassicas (broccoli, kale, Brussels sprouts): glucosinolates. Blanching, roasting, fat/salt/acid reduce perceived bitterness.
- Citrus pith: naringin (grapefruit) — intensely bitter. Remove completely.
- Tannins: red wine, tea, unripe fruit, walnut skins. Bind proteins — astringent, drying. Fat/protein (milk in tea, cheese with wine) bind tannins.
- Burnt food: acrid bitterness is irredeemable — discard.
Managing bitterness:
- Salt suppresses bitterness (Na+ blocks bitter receptors).
- Fat coats tongue, blocks bitter receptors.
- Acid and sweetness provide counterpoint.
- Blanching brassicas leaches out glucosinolates.
Umami
Identified by Kikunae Ikeda in 1908 from kombu dashi. The taste of glutamates and certain nucleotides.
Building umami:
- Use umami-rich ingredients: soy sauce, fish sauce, miso, tomato paste, anchovies, parmesan rind.
- Brown proteins and aromatics (Maillard reaction).
- Use stock, not water.
- Fermented condiments: Worcestershire, fish sauce, gochujang, doubanjiang.
- Kombu strip in beans, stock, or stew. Remove before serving.
3.2 Kokumi
"Rich taste" — mouthfeel/richness enhancer. Kokumi compounds (glutathione, gamma-glutamyl peptides) activate calcium-sensing receptors, enhancing perception of salt, sweet, and umami.
Kokumi-rich foods: slow-cooked stocks (longer simmer = more peptides), aged cheeses (18+ months), fermented foods (fish sauce, soy sauce, miso), slow-roasted/confit garlic, yeast extracts, scallops.
3.3 Aromatics: Volatile Compounds
Most "flavor" is actually smell — volatile compounds traveling retronasally while we chew.
Alliums (Garlic, Onion, Shallots)
- Allicin doesn't exist in intact plants — produced when cell walls are damaged and alliinase converts alliin (odorless) into allicin (pungent).
- Allicin is extremely reactive. Within minutes to hours, breaks down into mellower, complex organosulfur compounds.
- Finer cut = more allicin. Whole roasted garlic = sweet/mild. Microplaned = aggressively pungent. Crushing then resting 10-15 min maximizes allicin formation.
- Cooking: high heat = faster breakdown, sharper flavor. Low and slow = sweet, complex. Burning = acrid, irredeemable.
Chiles (Capsaicin)
- Activates TRPV1 heat/pain receptors — same as thermal heat. Endorphin release is genuine pain response.
- Scoville Heat Units (SHU): Bell pepper = 0. Jalapeno = 2,500-8,000. Serrano = 10,000-23,000. Cayenne = 30,000-50,000. Thai bird's eye = 50,000-100,000. Habanero = 100,000-350,000. Ghost pepper = 800,000-1,000,000+. Carolina Reaper = 1,600,000-2,200,000.
- Heat is in the placenta and seeds (white pith). Removing them removes majority of heat while preserving fruity flavor.
- Capsaicin is oil-soluble — water spreads it. Dairy (casein binds capsaicin), alcohol, and fat are effective.
Black Pepper (Piperine)
- Structurally similar to capsaicin, different receptors. Degrades with prolonged heat — add late or finish with fresh-cracked.
- Inhibits drug-metabolizing liver enzymes; enhances bioavailability of curcumin.
Herbs: Terpenes and Volatile Oils
| Herb | Primary compounds | Heat tolerance | Best use |
|---|---|---|---|
| Basil | Linalool, eugenol | Very low — add raw or at end | Caprese, pesto. Thai basil more heat-tolerant |
| Cilantro | Aldehydes (soap perception from OR6A2 variant) | Very low — add raw or end | Salsas, guacamole. Stems more flavorful |
| Parsley (flat-leaf) | Myristicin, apiol | Moderate — stems in stocks | Tabbouleh, chimichurri, gremolata |
| Mint | Menthol (cooling, TRPM8), carvone | Low — add at end/raw | Tabbouleh, chutney, lamb, peas |
| Rosemary | 1,8-cineole, camphor | High — add early | Roasted lamb, chicken, potatoes |
| Thyme | Thymol, carvacrol | High — add early | Most versatile culinary herb |
| Oregano (Mediterranean) | Carvacrol, thymol | High — improves with cooking. Dried often preferred | Tomato sauces, Greek salad, chili |
| Sage | Thujone, camphor | High — add early. Intense | Brown butter + sage, pork, poultry |
| Tarragon | Estragole (anise) | Moderate — mid-cooking. Use French only | Bearnaise, chicken, fish, eggs |
| Dill | Carvone, limonene | Low — add at end/raw | Salmon, pickles, tzatziki |
| Bay leaf (Laurus) | 1,8-cineole | Maximum — beginning. ALWAYS remove | Stocks, braises, stews, beans |
3.4 Flavor Pairing Theory
Shared volatile compounds:
| Pairing | Shared key compounds |
|---|---|
| White chocolate + caviar | Trimethylamine and amines |
| Dark chocolate + blue cheese | Pyrazines, methyl ketones |
| Strawberry + basil | Linalool and terpenes |
| Carrot + anise | Trans-anethole (carrots contain a small amount naturally) |
| Tomato + strawberry | Over 25 shared volatile compounds |
| Coffee + garlic | Pyrazines and sulfur compounds (Maillard + allium bridge) |
Contrast and complement (classical):
- Sweet + salty (salted caramel, prosciutto + melon)
- Rich/fatty + acidic (duck + orange, fried fish + lemon)
- Hot + cooling (spicy curry + raita)
- Crunchy + creamy (toast + avocado)
- Umami + umami + umami (parmesan + tomato + anchovy + mushroom)
3.5 Regional Spice Blends
Garam Masala (Indian)
"Cooking" masala. Core: cumin, coriander, green cardamom, black peppercorns, cloves, cinnamon (cassia), nutmeg/mace. ~2:1 cumin to coriander base. Dry-toast whole spices, cool, grind. Added near end of cooking — a finishing spice.
Za'atar (Middle Eastern)
Blend of dried za'atar herb (or oregano/thyme/marjoram), sumac (tart, lemony), toasted sesame seeds, salt. ~2:1:1 ratio. Dry dip with olive oil and bread (Levantine breakfast), on labneh, as crust for grilled meats.
Chinese Five-Spice
Star anise (dominant), Sichuan peppercorn (ma la — numbing, 50 Hz vibration on touch fibers), cassia cinnamon, fennel seeds, cloves. Used in: braised pork belly, Peking duck, five-spice tofu.
Herbes de Provence (French)
Savory (sarriette — the "secret" ingredient), marjoram, rosemary, thyme, oregano. Optional: lavender (controversial — easily overdone to soapiness), fennel seeds.
Berbere (Ethiopian)
Dried chiles (base), paprika, fenugreek (distinctive Ethiopian note), ginger, korarima (Ethiopian cardamom — substitute green cardamom + black pepper), cumin, coriander, allspice, cinnamon, cloves. Used in: doro wat, misir wat.
Ras el Hanout (Moroccan)
"Head of the shop" — 10 to 80+ ingredients. Core: cumin, coriander, ginger, cinnamon, turmeric, paprika, cardamom, allspice, nutmeg, cloves, cayenne. Luxury additions: dried rose petals, grains of paradise, orris root. Used in: tagines, couscous, bastilla.
Shichimi Togarashi (Japanese Seven-Spice)
Table condiment. Dried red chile flakes (base), sansho (Japanese pepper — numbing, citrusy), dried orange/yuzu peel, black/white sesame, nori flakes, poppy seeds. Sprinkled on udon, ramen, gyudon.
3.6 Herb Timing
Hardy herbs — add early: rosemary, thyme, bay leaf (must simmer full cooking time), oregano (dried improves with cooking), sage (frying transforms), savory, marjoram.
Tender herbs — add at end or raw: basil (heat destroys top notes in seconds), cilantro (aldehydes oxidize rapidly), parsley (mild bitterness fades), dill (carvone dissipates), chives (most delicate — cooking destroys entirely), chervil, tarragon (anise survives brief cooking), mint (menthol perception increases with heat, green freshness lost).
4. Ingredient Substitutions
4.1 Binders (Structure and Cohesion)
| Binder | Replaces | Ratio per egg | Best in | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Flax egg | 1 egg | 1 tbsp ground flax + 3 tbsp water, sit 5-15 min | Muffins, pancakes, cookies. NOT custards/meringues | Nutty. Gel from soluble fiber |
| Chia egg | 1 egg | 1 tbsp chia + 3 tbsp water | Similar to flax. Works in puddings naturally | Seeds crunchy if whole |
| Aquafaba | Egg whites | 3 tbsp per white. Whipped: 3 tbsp per white for meringue | Meringues, macarons, mousses, mayonnaise | Liquid from canned chickpeas. Whips identically to egg whites. 15 oz can = ~1/2 cup |
| Commercial egg replacer | 1 egg | Follow package | Cakes, cookies, muffins | Bob's Red Mill: potato starch, tapioca. Ener-G: methylcellulose-based |
| Applesauce | 1 egg | 1/4 cup + 1/2 tsp baking powder | Muffins, cakes, brownies. Dense, moist goods | Adds moisture. Doesn't provide structure |
| Mashed banana | 1 egg | 1/4 cup mashed | Pancakes, muffins, quick breads | Adds banana flavor. Reduce other liquid |
| Yogurt/buttermilk | 1 egg | 1/4 cup | Cakes, muffins | Dairy protein helps structure. Not vegan |
| Silken tofu | 1 egg | 1/4 cup blended smooth | Dense cakes, brownies | Puree until completely smooth |
4.2 Leaveners
| Property | Baking soda | Baking powder |
|---|---|---|
| Chemistry | NaHCO3. Requires acid + liquid. Reacts instantly when wet | NaHCO3 + dry acid(s) + starch. Double-acting |
| Acid required? | YES — buttermilk, yogurt, lemon, vinegar, molasses, brown sugar | NO — acid already in powder |
| Strength | 3-4x stronger than baking powder | Weaker (diluted) |
| General rule | 1/4 tsp per 1 cup flour | 1 tsp per 1 cup flour |
Formulas:
- 1 tsp baking powder = 1/4 tsp baking soda + 1/2 tsp cream of tartar
- Buttermilk sub = 1 cup milk + 1 tbsp lemon juice/vinegar, sit 5-10 min
- Self-rising flour = 1 cup all-purpose flour + 1 1/2 tsp baking powder + 1/4 tsp salt
- 1 tsp instant yeast = 1 1/4 tsp active dry yeast
4.3 Thickeners
| Thickener | Power vs flour | How to use | Behavior | Best for |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| All-purpose flour | 1x | Roux: cook in fat 3-5+ min. Slurry: whisk with cold water | Thickens at ~185F. Opaque, matte. Stable | Gravies, stews, cream sauces |
| Cornstarch | 2x (half amount) | Slurry: mix with COLD water first | Thickens at ~203F. Clear, glossy. Breaks if boiled >1-2 min | Stir-fry sauces, fruit pie fillings |
| Arrowroot | 1.5-2x | Slurry. Add at END | Clear, glossy. Thickens at lower temp (158-185F). Freezes well | Fruit sauces, delicate sauces |
| Tapioca starch | 2x | Slurry or mix with sugar | Clear, slightly stretchy. Holds to prolonged cooking | Fruit pies, puddings, GF baking |
| Potato starch | 1.5x | Slurry. Add at end | Thickens quickly, low temp. Breaks with heat | Last-minute thickening |
| Xanthan gum | 8x (~1/8 amount) | Blend with dry ingredients or oil. Do NOT dump into liquid | Thickens cold or hot. 1/8 tsp thickens 1 cup | GF baking, dressings, ice cream |
| Gelatin | Gelling | Bloom in cold water, dissolve in warm | Melts at body temp. Animal-derived | Panna cotta, mousses |
| Agar-agar | Gelling | Dissolve, bring to boil (185F), cool to set | Sets at room temp. More brittle. Vegan | Asian desserts |
4.4 Sweeteners
Rule: every 1 cup liquid sweetener replacing 1 cup sugar = reduce liquid by 1/4 cup + add 1/4 tsp baking soda.
| Sweetener | Replaces 1 cup sugar | Liquid adjustment | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Honey | 3/4 cup | Reduce liquid 2-3 tbsp | Reduce oven 25F. Add 1/4 tsp baking soda |
| Maple syrup | 3/4 cup | Reduce liquid 3 tbsp | Reduce oven 25F |
| Agave nectar | 2/3 cup | Reduce liquid 1/4 cup | Neutral flavor |
| Brown sugar | 1:1 (for white sugar) | None (granular) | Homemade: 1 cup white + 1 tbsp (light) or 2 tbsp (dark) molasses |
| Coconut sugar | 1:1 | None (granular) | Slight caramel flavor. Lower GI but still sugar |
4.5 Dairy Substitutions
| Dairy | Substitute | Ratio | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Buttermilk (1 cup) | Plant milk + 1 tbsp lemon juice/vinegar. Sit 5-10 min | 1:1 | Soy milk curdles best |
| Heavy cream | Coconut cream (refrigerated full-fat can). Cashew cream (1 cup soaked cashews + 1/2-3/4 cup water, blend) | 1:1 | Coconut cream whips. Cashew cream adds richness |
| Sour cream | Plant yogurt + lemon juice. Cashew sour cream: soaked cashews + water + lemon + ACV | 1:1 | Fermented plant yogurts have closest tang |
| Butter | Vegan butter sticks (Earth Balance, Miyoko's). Coconut oil (+ add 2 tbsp water per cup — butter is 80% fat) | 1:1 | Stick form crucial for baking |
| Milk | Soy milk (highest protein). Oat milk (creamiest). Almond milk (thinnest) | 1:1 | Carton coconut milk != canned coconut milk |
| Sweetened condensed milk | Full-fat coconut milk + 1/2-3/4 cup sugar, simmered until reduced by 1/3 | 1 can + sugar = ~1 can equiv | Sugar prevents spoilage |
4.6 Alliums
| Substitute | Replaces | Intensity | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Shallot <-> onion | 1 onion = 3-4 shallots | Milder, sweeter | Caramelize faster |
| Leek <-> onion | 1 onion = 1 large leek | Mildest | Must clean thoroughly |
| Scallion <-> onion | 1 onion = 6-8 scallions | Very mild | White parts cook, green garnish |
| Chives <-> scallion greens | 1 scallion = 1-2 tbsp chives | Most delicate | Almost never cooked |
Low-FODMAP allium replacements:
- Garlic-infused oil: fructans are water-soluble, not fat-soluble. Infuse oil with garlic, strain. Use immediately, refrigerate, discard within 3-4 days.
- Asafoetida (hing): tiny pinch (1/8 tsp). Fry in oil — raw smell alarming, heated transforms to garlic-onion-leek. Store airtight.
- Scallion greens (green part only) and chives: FODMAP-safe. Raw garnish.
4.7 Gluten-Free Flour Blends
Basic blend ratio (by weight):
| Component | % | Role | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| Whole grain flour(s) | 40-50% | Protein, structure, flavor | Brown rice flour, sorghum, millet, oat (cert GF), teff, buckwheat |
| Starch(es) | 40-50% | Tenderness, lightness | Tapioca starch, potato starch (NOT flour), cornstarch |
| Binder | 5-10% | Elasticity, replaces gluten | Xanthan gum, guar gum, psyllium husk |
Standard GF blend (~4 cups / ~600g):
- 200g brown rice flour — 40%
- 200g tapioca starch — 40%
- 100g potato starch — 20%
- 2 tsp xanthan gum
Xanthan per cup of GF blend: cookies: 1/4-1/2 tsp. Cakes/muffins: 1/2-3/4 tsp. Yeast breads: 1-1.5 tsp. Pie crust: 1/2 tsp. Batters: 1/4 tsp.
Rule: weigh, don't measure. GF flours vary wildly in density.
5. Food Storage & Expiration
5.1 Refrigerator Zones
| Zone | Temp range | Best for | Why |
|---|---|---|---|
| Door shelves | 40-42F (4.4-5.5C) — warmest | Condiments, butter, juices. NOT eggs or milk | Door opening subjects to warm air. Egg holder in door is a design flaw |
| Top shelf | 38-40F (3.3-4.4C) | Leftovers, ready-to-eat foods, berries, herbs, butter | Already-cooked food doesn't need coldest zone |
| Middle shelves | 36-38F (2.2-3.3C) | Dairy, eggs, cheeses | Consistent temperature |
| Bottom shelf | 34-36F (1.1-2.2C) — coldest | Raw meat, poultry, fish. MUST be in tray/container | Minimizes pathogen growth. Prevent cross-contamination |
| High-humidity drawer | Closed vent | Leafy greens, broccoli, carrots, cucumbers | Closed vent traps moisture, prevents wilting |
| Low-humidity drawer | Open vent | Ethylene-producing fruits (apples, pears), mushrooms | Open vent releases ethylene gas and moisture |
5.2 The Ethylene Effect
Ethylene is a plant hormone gas produced by many fruits to trigger ripening. Ethylene-producers accelerate ripening in nearby ethylene-sensitive vegetables.
High ethylene producers (keep separate): apples (very high), avocados, bananas (ripe = production spikes), tomatoes, pears, stone fruit, melons, kiwi, figs, mangoes.
Ethylene-sensitive (spoil faster near producers): lettuce/leafy greens (turn brown), broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, cucumbers (soften), carrots (become bitter), asparagus, green beans, potatoes (sprout faster), herbs.
Ethylene-insensitive (store together freely): citrus, berries (slight sensitivity), cherries, grapes, pineapple, onions/garlic (pantry, not fridge).
Using ethylene intentionally: avocado in paper bag with banana or apple = overnight ripening.
5.3 Freezer Storage
0F (-18C) target — every 5F above roughly halves shelf life.
Freezer burn: water sublimates from food surface (solid -> gas), recrystallizes. Food dehydrates unevenly — dry, leathery, discolored. Safe to eat but unpleasant. Prevention: eliminate air contact (vacuum seal, tight wrap, freezer paper, heavy foil).
Blanching vegetables before freezing: denatures enzymes that degrade color/flavor/texture even at freezer temps. Boil 1-3 min, immediate ice shock. Preserves quality 8-12 months vs 2-3 months unblanched. Must-blanch: broccoli, cauliflower, green beans, peas, corn, carrots, Brussels sprouts, asparagus, leafy greens. Optional: peppers, onions, herbs.
Proper freezer packaging:
- Vacuum sealer: gold standard. 3-5x longer shelf life.
- Freezer paper + tape: traditional butcher method. Plastic-coated side against meat.
- Heavy-duty foil: wrap tightly, overwrap.
- Freezer bags: water displacement method (submerge bag, water pressure pushes air out, seal above water line).
- Ice cube trays: herbs, pesto, tomato paste, stock, wine.
- Sheet pan freezing: berries, meatballs, cookie dough. Freeze in single layer, then transfer to bag.
Freezer shelf life:
| Food | Optimal quality | Maximum safe |
|---|---|---|
| Raw ground meat | 3-4 months | 4-6 months |
| Raw whole cuts | 4-12 months (beef/lamb longest) | 12 months |
| Raw poultry (whole) | 12 months | 12 months |
| Raw poultry (pieces) | 9 months | 9-12 months |
| Raw fish (lean) | 6-8 months | 8-10 months |
| Raw fish (fatty) | 2-3 months | 3-4 months |
| Cooked meat/poultry | 2-3 months | 4-6 months |
| Soups/stews/stocks | 2-3 months | 4-6 months |
| Bread/baked goods | 2-3 months | 4-6 months |
| Butter | 6-9 months | 12 months |
| Cheese (hard, shredded) | 3-6 months | 6-8 months |
| Vegetables (blanched) | 8-12 months | 12-18 months |
| Nuts and seeds | 6-12 months | 12-24 months |
| Coffee beans (whole) | 1-2 months | 3-6 months (freeze in single-use portions) |
5.4 Pantry Storage
Cool (50-70F / 10-21C), dark, dry. Heat, light, moisture are the enemies.
| Item | Shelf life | Storage notes |
|---|---|---|
| White flour | 6-12 months pantry, 12+ months freezer | Airtight container |
| Whole grain flour | 3-6 months pantry, 6+ months fridge/freezer | ALWAYS refrigerate/freeze. Rancid flour = old crayons smell |
| White rice | Indefinitely | Canonical infinite shelf life. Brown rice: 6-12 months |
| Dried pasta | 2-3 years past date | Very stable |
| Dried beans | 1-2 years optimal, indefinitely safe | Older beans take longer to cook; may never fully soften |
| Rolled oats | 12-24 months unopened | Steel-cut last longer |
| Nuts (shelled) | 6-12 months pantry, 1 yr+ fridge, 2+ yrs freezer | ALWAYS fridge/freezer. High PUFA = rancid at room temp in weeks |
| Seeds | 6-12 months pantry | Flax/chia/hemp: ALWAYS refrigerate. Ground flax: weeks at room temp |
| Oils | 12-24 months unopened, 6-12 opened (veg/canola/olive), 3-6 opened (nut/flax) | Smell before using. Store away from stove |
| Whole spices | 3-4 years | Retain volatile oils much longer than ground |
| Ground spices | 2-3 years | Buy whole, grind as needed. Write purchase date on jar |
| Dried herbs | 1-3 years | Crush and smell — faint = replace yearly |
| Baking powder | 6-12 months opened | Test: 1/2 tsp in hot water = vigorous fizz |
| Baking soda | 2-3 years unopened, 6 months opened | Test: few drops vinegar = fizzes |
| Yeast | 2 years unopened, 4 months opened fridge, 6+ months freezer | Proof: warm water + pinch sugar. Foams in 5-10 min = alive |
| Honey | Indefinitely | Never spoils. Crystallization normal. No infants <1 yr (botulism) |
| Maple syrup | Indefinitely unopened, 1 year opened fridge | Mold on surface = discard |
| Canned goods | 1-5 years past date | Dented/bulging/rusty cans = DISCARD (botulism risk) |
| Dehydrated/freeze-dried | 5-25 years | Moisture is enemy. O2 absorbers + mylar + sealed bucket |
5.5 Signs of Spoilage
Visual: mold (fuzzy, colored), discoloration (meat turning gray/green), slime (bacterial biofilm).
Olfactory: sour (dairy — lactic acid bacteria), rancid (oils/nuts — crayons/putty/paint), ammonia (fish — protein breakdown), yeasty/alcoholic (fruit — fermentation), sulfur/rotten eggs (brassicas). Trust your nose — if it smells wrong, it IS wrong.
Tactile: slimy (meat, deli meat), tacky/sticky (produce), mushiness (cell wall breakdown), excessively firm/dry (freezer burn).
5.6 Food Safety Fundamentals
The danger zone: 40-140F (
Truncated - read the full file at https://github.com/sandboxcom/gludd/blob/b1f03feebb3005f20e100ea61e650a7c03011044/.opencode/skills/culinary-expert/SKILL.md.